Improving preschoolers' number foundations

Mathematical competence is crucial for educational and financial success in modern societies. There is currently debate whether mathematical abilities later on in life depend on symbolic knowledge, such as counting abilities and digit recognition, or whether they rely upon non-symbolic knowledge, such as the ability to discriminate between large magnitudes that rely upon the approximate number sense (ANS). However, it is unclear whether symbolic abilities rely on non-symbolic ones (one-representation view) or whether symbolic and non-symbolic abilities are distinct systems (dual-representation view). Knowing what abilities predict mathematical success later on in life is important for the development of economically valid and efficient educational programmes, especially for those children who perform low on mathematical ability tasks or low achievers (LA). Our previous studies had shown that specially developed PLUS games, which target ANS abilities and require children to guess and see where is “more” or “less” very quickly, improved typically developing preschooler’s ANS abilities. However, it was unclear how the PLUS games compared to other training programmes, for example those that target symbolic knowledge, and whether the PLUS programme would benefit children who perform low on mathematical ability tasks. In this study we first examined which children performed low on mathematical ability tasks. Next, we compared the impact of two different training programmes on LA children’s ANS knowledge, their symbolic knowledge, and their mathematical abilities in general. One of the training programmes focused on nonsymbolic abilities using PLUS games, which targeted children’s ANS abilities, and the other programme included DIGIT games that targeted symbolic knowledge and focused on children’s counting abilities and digit knowledge. We included preschoolers as they would have received little formal education so far and thus have limited symbolic knowledge. In addition, we targeted those preschoolers who were performing below average on mathematical ability tasks and who had low ANS abilities. The inclusion of children who had both little symbolic and non-symbolic abilities allowed us to examine the foundations of mathematical abilities and to observe which training programme would benefit children’s general mathematical outcomes most. We predicted that if ANS abilities form the basis of mathematical abilities then children in the PLUS group would improve more than those in the DIGIT group. However, if non-symbolic and symbolic knowledge are two distinct systems then children in the DIGIT group should show improved mathematical abilities. Our results showed that, although there are a number of reasons why preschoolers perform low on mathematical ability tasks, most children identified as LA had low ANS abilities as well. This confirms results in previous studies that have found that ANS abilities are important for children’s mathematical abilities. The results from the training study showed that both training groups improved equally on a number of mathematical ability tasks that assess symbolic knowledge, including counting abilities, digit recognition, and understanding of counting as well as those that require non-symbolic knowledge, including ANS abilities. Finally, both groups showed improved general mathematical abilities and over 50% of LA children were no longer considered as low achievers on mathematical ability tasks six months later. Therefore, the current results suggest that LA preschoolers benefit from playing daily mathematical games that target both non-symbolic abilities, the PLUS games, as well as symbolic ones, the DIGIT games. In addition, there is a complex interaction between symbolic, non-symbolic abilities, and mathematical cognition in preschoolers in that children who played DIGIT games also showed improved nonsymbolic abilities. Future studies should examine longitudinal outcomes and assesses which LA children continue to show mathematical difficulties or whether the training programmes benefit LA children long term. In addition, larger controlled trials are needed to verify the current findings. Based upon the current results we would recommend that all preschool children engage in daily games that support mathematical development, including both PLUS and DIGIT games, as this will allow LA children to reach their full potential

Determining the extent to which L1 learner choices influence the L2 : exploring semantic and syntactic choices

This study tests Jiang’s (2004) 3-stage model of second language (L2) vocabulary acquisition. Jiang observed continued first language (L1) [Korean] semantic mediation in L2 processing among advanced L2 speakers. We hypothesise, however, that mediation might depend on the developing proficiency of the L2 learner and the relationship between L1 and L2. We explored the extent to which L1 background influences the processing of semantics and syntax in L2 (English). Three different L1 subject groups (n=30 per group): English, European, and Japanese. L1 European speakers were tested because their L1 shares the same word order as the L2, in contrast to L1 Japanese speakers. Two reaction time (RT) experiments were conducted to determine whether strings of words accurately reflect English syntax or semantics. Using the L1 English subject group as a control, we compared the choices made by our three groups. We also examined the L2 (English) learners’ vocabulary size. Overall the RTs were slower for incorrect syntactic word strings. The syntax RTs of the European and Japanese groups showed differences between correct and incorrect strings. However, the Japanese group showed no difference between SVO correct and incorrect strings. The semantic RTs did not differ between the L2 groups but the control group was faster. Initial findings suggest that L2 word order judgement latencies are mediated more by L1 word order; however, L2 semantic judgement latencies seem less mediated by differences in L1 word order. The findings are discussed in light of Jiang’s model and how the role of L1 word order is closer related to L2 syntactic processing than semantic processing. References Jiang, N. (2004) ‘Semantic transfer and its implications for vocabulary teaching in a second language’. The Modern Language Journal, 88 (3), pp.416-432

Comparing parental stress of children with neurodevelopmental disorders : the case of Williams syndrome, Down syndrome and autism spectrum disorders

Background Although parental stress is higher for children with neurodevelopmental disorders (NDs), it is unclear how this stress compares to more common NDs. The current study compared stress in parents of children with Williams syndrome (WS), Down syndrome (DS) and autism spectrum disorders (ASD). The impact of individual and contextual factors was also explored. Method Parents of children with WS (n = 107), DS (n = 79) and ASD (n = 79) completed a background questionnaire, a parental stress questionnaire and a satisfaction with life questionnaire. Results Although all groups displayed similar levels of parental stress, the factors that influenced this stress differed between the groups. There were also differences for life satisfaction and relationships between parental stress and individual and contextual factors. Conclusions Although parents of children with NDs are not at an increased risk of parental stress, the results suggest that interventions should be syndrome‐specific

Williams syndrome and its cognitive profile: the importance of eye movements

People with Williams syndrome (WS), a rare neurodevelopmental disorder that is caused by a deletion on the long arm of chromosome 7, often show an uneven cognitive profile with participants performing better on language and face recognition tasks, in contrast to visuospatial and number tasks. Recent studies have shown that this specific cognitive profile in WS is a result of atypical developmental processes that interact with and affect brain development from infancy onward. Using examples from language, face processing, number, and visuospatial studies, this review evaluates current evidence from eye-tracking and developmental studies and argues that domain general processes, such as the ability to plan or execute saccades, influence the development of these domain-specific outcomes. Although more research on eye movements in WS is required, the importance of eye movements for cognitive development suggests a possible intervention pathway to improve cognitive abilities in this population